READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

The Colosseum

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have puzzled over the many mysteries of the Colosseum, a monumental amphitheatre in the heart of ancient Rome. Built around 70-80 CE, it is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and its architectural grandeur.

Archaeologists believe Rome’s most famous amphitheatre was constructed in several stages, beginning under Emperor Vespasian and completed under his successor, Titus. Initially, Roman builders used a mixture of concrete and stone, sourcing materials from various parts of the empire. The outer walls, made of travertine, were designed to support the immense weight of the structure.

Several years later, the Colosseum’s builders focused on creating the elaborate underground structures, known as the hypogeum. These chambers housed animals, gladiators, and equipment, all essential for the grand spectacles held above. How did ancient Romans, without modern machinery, construct such a sophisticated system?

According to one long-standing theory among historians, the Romans employed a vast workforce, including skilled engineers and thousands of labourers. They used a system of pulleys, cranes, and ramps to lift and position heavy stone blocks. More recent archaeological discoveries suggest they also utilised advanced knowledge of hydraulics to manage the hypogeum’s complex network of tunnels and elevators.

In the 20th century, some engineers proposed that natural events like earthquakes played a significant role in the Colosseum’s current state. However, most archaeologists argue that human intervention, including periods of neglect and repurposing of materials, primarily shaped its evolution.

The final phase of major construction occurred during the reign of Domitian. At this time, additional structures were added to accommodate more spectators and to enhance the gladiatorial games’ theatricality. Some parts of the Colosseum have been restored in modern times, revealing the original craftsmanship and techniques used.

But who were the builders of the Colosseum? Ancient Roman records suggest that thousands of slaves, prisoners of war, and skilled artisans contributed to its construction. This theory is supported by numerous artefacts, such as tools and inscriptions, found at the site, indicating the presence of a large and diverse workforce.

If the facts surrounding the builders and construction of the Colosseum remain somewhat unclear, the purpose of this massive structure is better understood. The primary function was to host public spectacles, including gladiator contests, animal hunts, and mock sea battles.

In the early 20th century, some historians suggested that the Colosseum also served as a means of social control, providing entertainment to distract the populace from political issues. This theory has gained considerable attention over the years, although critics argue that its primary function remained as an entertainment venue.

More recently, signs of wear and modifications in the Colosseum have led a group of archaeologists to speculate that it also played a role in political propaganda, showcasing the power and generosity of the emperors who funded its construction.

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Living with Artificial Intelligence: A New Reality

As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes more advanced and intertwined with our daily lives, does this mean that human decision-making will be rendered unnecessary?

This decade has been marked by remarkable advancements in AI, with breakthroughs occurring one after another. AI systems are now capable of driving vehicles, diagnosing illnesses, and even creating music. These innovations signal the dawn of a new era, but what comes next? These developments fall under the category of machine learning, which emphasises systems that can adapt and evolve. Many experts believe this is just the beginning. By the middle of the century, we might witness AI systems that can completely replace many tasks currently performed by humans.

If this happens, it's unlikely that the progression will stop there. AI technology is not bound by the same constraints as human labour. Our current societal framework relies heavily on human judgement and work, which can be inconsistent and prone to error. In contrast, AI processes data and makes decisions based on logic and patterns, which are plentiful and scalable. This shift could be as revolutionary as the transition from manual to automated processes in the industrial era.

As AI systems become more sophisticated, their adoption may accelerate. But what implications will this have for us? Will we be able to ensure a sustainable and equitable future with AI? On the positive side, AI is already proving to be beneficial and profitable in various sectors, and more advanced systems are likely to offer even greater advantages. However, as AI becomes more prevalent, it will be crucial to manage this transition carefully. Previous technological transitions, like the shift from analog to digital, have had significant social and economic changes.

To ensure a smooth transition, we need to develop AI systems that align with societal values. One challenge is that different communities have different needs and resources. A uniform approach won’t be effective. AI systems must be flexible enough to adapt to local conditions and be designed with input from the community to meet specific needs.

To achieve sustainability, we need AI technologies to be not only efficient but also fair. We want them to benefit all segments of society, not just the privileged. If AI technologies deepen existing inequalities, we will face new social problems.

For a successful transition, the AI industry must strive for both technological excellence and social responsibility. Advanced AI systems will be capable of identifying the best ways to integrate into different communities and guide us toward a sustainable future.

However, there are two major obstacles to realising this vision. One is the initial implementation—the challenge of shifting from human-centric systems to AI. This won’t be easy, considering the current infrastructure and vested interests in traditional systems. The other challenge is achieving global cooperation. AI development and regulation are global issues, and effective solutions require collaboration across nations. How can we align the objectives of different countries?

As for the outcome, by transitioning to AI, we could be ushering in a new era of innovation and efficiency. This might involve reducing our dependence on traditional human-led systems. While this change is necessary for progress, it will require a collective effort and a willingness to adapt.

The advantages of AI are not always immediately apparent. For example, incorporating AI into healthcare could result in more accurate diagnoses and personalised treatment plans. However, the process will involve significant upfront costs and will require political will and public support.

These challenges may seem daunting, but they are already being addressed in some areas. For instance, AI is increasingly being used in local communities to enhance services and improve quality of life. If adopted more broadly, these technologies could transform our systems and eliminate inefficiencies. However, it is essential that the transition be fair and equitable.

We now have a powerful new tool—a way to advance society through intelligent systems. For our safety and the future of society, we must guide this transition thoughtfully and act in the best interests of all communities. It is not yet clear whether this is achievable, but if it is, it will require a cooperative spirit and a willingness to innovate.

Both technological innovation and social equity are crucial for this transition. But sustainability demands that we consider them together: if we are to adopt AI widely, we must ensure it benefits everyone. And where does that leave traditional industries? It is all the more reason to contemplate the future now and proceed with caution.

READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

An Ideal Healthcare System

Florence Nightingale’s ideal healthcare system was centuries ahead of its time

The word ‘pioneer’ is universally associated with the name of Florence Nightingale. A true innovator in healthcare, she embodied scientific spirit, organisational talent, and humanist sensibilities. Over a century has passed since Nightingale revolutionised nursing, yet far from fading into insignificance, her thinking has carried down the generations and still surprises today.

The 19th century marked a time of significant social and healthcare change, following the Industrial Revolution which caused major shifts in population and labour. Today, the world is on the cusp of a technological revolution, predicted to cause widespread changes in how we live and work. Then, as now, radical solutions were called for to revolutionise the way people were cared for and to safeguard public health.

Around 1854—after observing the poor conditions in military hospitals during the Crimean War—Nightingale turned her thoughts to healthcare reform. Following a typical Victorian trend, she began to work on an ‘ideal healthcare system’ project, which—due to its innovative nature—was initially met with resistance. Yet given that outdated healthcare models are a key cause of health inequity today, it’s only natural to wonder how Nightingale might have changed the shape of modern healthcare.

Although the 19th century is renowned as an era of incredible progress in science and industry, it is rarely noted that it also marked the birth of modern healthcare as a true academic discipline. The rigour and method behind the conscious conception of healthcare had been largely missing in Western thought until prominent reformers like Nightingale pushed forward large-scale healthcare projects. These works surely inspired Nightingale’s decision to rethink the design of hospitals; with their overcrowded wards and lack of sanitation.

It is not easy to identify a coordinated vision of Nightingale’s ideal healthcare system because of her extensive travels and wide range of interests. But from the largest collection of Nightingale’s papers ever assembled, a series of innovative thoughts can be reconstructed regarding the foundation of a new healthcare system that focuses on patient-centred care, which emphasises the importance of hygiene, nutrition, and compassionate treatment.

Her plans for a modern and ‘rational’ healthcare system were consistent with Victorian ideals. But, in keeping with her personality, Nightingale included several innovations in her healthcare design. Nightingale wanted the healthcare system to be built around the natural healing processes, with well-ventilated and sanitary environments. This design can be seen in some of today’s healthcare facilities but was unconventional at the time. Indeed, this idea of fostering a healing environment wasn’t widely accepted until much later.

While in the hospitals, patients could receive care at their own pace, with nurses acting as both caregivers and educators. But the true originality of Nightingale’s vision was its fusion of healthcare and social reform. Nightingale designed extensive educational programmes to train nurses in both medical and social sciences. She also thought that the healthcare environment ought to be structured to encourage recovery and well-being.

Although some of these features existed in earlier healthcare theories, before Nightingale’s work there had never been a patient-centred, holistic healthcare system which was thoroughly technically conceived. Indeed, it wasn’t until the mid-20th century that some of her ideas were widely applied. For example, the concept of individualised care plans and the emphasis on sanitary hospital conditions are ideas that can be found in many modern healthcare practices.

Today, Nightingale’s ideas are not simply valid, they actually suggest a way forward for healthcare reform. Many scholars think that a patient-centred, holistic healthcare system, integrated with modern technology and with a focus on preventive care, could help modern healthcare become more effective and equitable. This is yet another reason why Nightingale was aligned so closely with modern healthcare thinking and centuries ahead of her time.