READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Vertical Gardens in Urban Areas

In Singapore, architects and environmentalists are collaborating on the development of vertical gardens to bring greenery into the cityscape. Could these innovations help reduce urban heat islands and improve air quality?

On the façade of a new high-rise building in downtown Singapore, an extensive vertical garden is flourishing. Ferns, orchids, and other tropical plants grow from specially designed panels, creating a lush, green wall. The garden not only adds aesthetic value but also provides insulation and cooling for the building. Inside the building, similar gardens have been installed in the atrium and on various balconies, bringing nature indoors.

Architect Lim Wei started experimenting with vertical gardening on a small scale in his home years ago. Now, the project spans several buildings, covering a total of 20,000 square metres, roughly the size of three soccer fields. The team responsible for maintaining the gardens includes horticulturists and volunteers who have planted over 10,000 plants. "While we can't cover every building with greenery," says Lim, "if we can integrate more green spaces, we can significantly reduce urban heat and enhance biodiversity."

This initiative is also a showcase for Lim's environmental consultancy, GreenBuild. They have received numerous requests from other cities to design and implement vertical gardens. "The advantages are numerous," says Lim. "Green walls can lower building temperatures, improve air quality, and create habitats for urban wildlife. They also reduce energy consumption by insulating buildings."

Vertical gardens use hydroponic systems, where plants grow in nutrient-rich water rather than soil. "This allows us to grow a wide variety of plants in limited space and with less water," Lim explains. The system recycles water, reducing waste and ensuring that plants receive consistent nutrients. Additionally, the plants help filter pollutants from the air, contributing to a healthier urban environment.

While the concept of urban greening is not new, vertical gardens are gaining popularity from New York to Tokyo. Buildings are being retrofitted with green walls, and new constructions are incorporating them from the design phase. "Our approach is adaptable and scalable," says Lim. "The technology is accessible, and the benefits are immediate. We can involve local communities in these projects, fostering a sense of ownership and environmental stewardship."

These gardens not only beautify the city but also have practical benefits. They can mitigate the urban heat island effect, where cities become significantly warmer than their rural surroundings due to human activities. However, there are limitations. "Not all plant species are suitable for vertical gardens, and maintaining these systems requires expertise," Lim notes. "But with ongoing research and innovation, we can overcome these challenges and expand our green infrastructure."

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Forest Management in Norway

How utilising low-quality wood for bioenergy can promote sustainable forest management

A A tree’s ‘value’ depends on several factors including its species, size, form, condition, quality, function, and accessibility, and depends on the management goals for a given forest. The same tree can be valued very differently by each person who looks at it. A large, straight Norway spruce tree has high value as timber to be cut into logs or made into furniture, but for a landowner more interested in wildlife habitat, the real value of that stem (or trunk) may be the food it provides to animals. Likewise, if the tree suffers from disease, its value for timber decreases, but to a woodworker interested in unique patterns, it offers opportunities for creativity.

B In the past, Norwegian landowners were primarily interested in the value of their trees as high-quality timber. The norm was to remove the stems of highest quality and leave behind poorly formed trees that were not as well suited to the site where they grew. This practice, called ‘high-grading’, has left a legacy of ‘low-value wood’ in the forests. Some people even call these ‘junk trees’, and they are abundant in Norway. These trees have lower economic value for traditional timber markets, compete for growth with higher-value trees, shade out desirable regeneration and decrease the health of a stand leaving it more vulnerable to poor weather and disease. Management that specifically targets low-value wood can help landowners manage these forest health issues, and wood energy markets help promote this.

C Wood energy markets can accept less expensive wood material of lower quality than would be suitable for traditional timber markets. Most wood used for energy in Norway is used to produce heat or electricity through combustion. Many schools and hospitals use wood boiler systems to heat and power their facilities, many homes are primarily heated with wood, and some coal plants incorporate wood into their coal streams to produce electricity. Wood can also be gasified for electrical generation and can even be made into liquid fuels like ethanol and gasoline for lorries and cars. All these products are made primarily from low-value wood. Several tree- and plant-cutting approaches, which could greatly improve the long-term quality of a forest, focus strongly or solely on the use of wood for those markets.

D One such approach is called a Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) Cut. In a TSI Cut, really poor-quality tree and plant material is cut down to allow more space, light, and other resources to the highest-valued stems that remain. Removing invasive plants might be another primary goal of a TSI Cut. The stems that are left behind might then grow in size and develop more foliage and larger crowns or tops that produce more coverage for wildlife; they have a better chance to regenerate in a less crowded environment. TSI Cuts can be tailored to one farmer’s specific management goals for his or her land.

E Another approach that might yield a high amount of low-value wood is a Salvage Cut. With the many pests and pathogens visiting forests including spruce bark beetle, pine weevil, emerald ash borer, and gypsy moth, to name just a few, it is important to remember that those working in the forests can help ease these issues through cutting procedures. These types of cut reduce the number of sick trees and seek to manage the future spread of a pest problem. They leave vigorous trees that have stayed healthy enough to survive the outbreak.

F A Shelterwood Cut, which only takes place in a mature forest that has already been thinned several times, involves removing all the mature trees when other seedlings have become established. This then allows the forester to decide which tree species are regenerated. It leaves a young forest where all trees are at a similar point in their growth. It can also be used to develop a two-tier forest so that there are two harvests and the money that comes in is spread out over a decade or more.

G Thinnings and dense and dead wood removal for fire prevention also centre on the production of low-value wood. However, it is important to remember that some retention of what many would classify as low-value wood is very important. The tops of trees that have been cut down should be left on the site so that their nutrients cycle back into the soil. In addition, trees with many cavities are extremely important habitats for insect predators like woodpeckers, bats and small mammals. They help control problem insects and increase the health and resilience of the forest. It is also important to remember that not all small trees are low-value. For example, many species like hawthorn provide food for wildlife. Finally, rare species of trees in a forest should also stay behind as they add to its structural diversity.

READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

Tackling the E-Waste Challenge

A Last year, individuals, organisations, and governments around the world generated over 50 million tons of electronic waste, a significant increase compared to previous decades. This surge in e-waste production has led to severe pollution problems, especially in developing countries. Reports suggest that much of this waste ends up in landfills, where toxic chemicals can leach into the soil and water, impacting ecosystems and human health.

All this e-waste can lead to disaster. Ten years ago, a shipment of electronic waste was improperly disposed of, resulting in a significant contamination event that affected local communities. Altogether, there are millions of tons of e-waste generated annually. And while some efforts are made to recycle this waste, the sheer volume makes it a daunting task.

B Concern about e-waste goes back several decades, but the scale of the problem is now prompting urgent action. Several teams are working on innovative methods to manage e-waste and prevent further pollution. Some researchers are developing advanced recycling technologies that can recover valuable materials from old electronics. Others are working on designing electronics that are easier to disassemble and recycle.

The alternative, many say, is unthinkable. Without significant intervention, the accumulation of e-waste could reach a tipping point where the damage becomes irreversible. "If we continue on this path, we will reach a point of no return," says Dr. Emily Roberts, an environmental scientist at the University of California. She adds, "Despite clear guidelines, too many still fail to prioritize proper e-waste disposal."

C Even as our ability to address e-waste improves, so too does the total amount of e-waste produced. This has led to increased collaboration between countries, organisations, and industries to tackle the shared threat. International agreements such as the Basel Convention have been established to regulate the movement and disposal of e-waste. These agreements set guidelines for reducing e-waste production, promoting recycling, and ensuring proper waste management. However, compliance remains a challenge, and many countries struggle to meet the targets.

D In theory, given the vastness of the global market, e-waste should be manageable. However, e-waste does not degrade easily, and improper disposal can lead to significant environmental harm. Scientists are using advanced tracking systems to monitor e-waste flows and identify hotspots where recycling efforts can be most effective. "If we can pinpoint where the e-waste is accumulating, we can target our efforts more efficiently," says Dr. Michael Lee, an environmental engineer.

E The field of e-waste management is evolving, much like traffic management for air and road transportation. Advanced tracking systems are being developed to monitor e-waste globally. Similar to how air-traffic controllers manage planes, scientists are working on systems to track large quantities of e-waste and coordinate recycling operations. The precision of these systems varies, but the goal is to create a comprehensive database of e-waste.

F One of the challenges is the lack of accurate data on the location and amount of e-waste. Dr. Sarah Thompson, a researcher at the Environmental Protection Agency, has developed a global database that integrates data from various sources, including satellite imagery and international reports. This database helps visualise the distribution of e-waste and identify discrepancies in reported data. "When we have conflicting information, it makes it difficult to develop effective strategies," Thompson explains.

Thompson describes herself as an environmental steward: "I want to make our planet safe and clean for future generations." Until significant progress is made, she argues, the issue of e-waste will continue to worsen, affecting ecosystems and human health.