READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

The Great Wall of China

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have been intrigued by the many mysteries of the Great Wall of China, an ancient fortification that took an estimated 2,000 years to build. Stretching across northern China, it is comprised of various sections of walls and fortresses made from different materials.

Archaeologists believe China’s most iconic structure was built in several stages, with the earliest constructed over 2,300 years ago. Initially, the Chinese used primitive tools made of stone and wood to create the first walls, which were made of compacted earth. Remnants from this period can still be found today.

Several hundred years later, during the Ming Dynasty, the wall was reconstructed and extended using bricks and stones. The Ming builders constructed watchtowers, garrison stations, and barracks along the wall, which stretches over 21,000 kilometres. How did the ancient Chinese without modern machinery move such massive quantities of materials?

According to one long-standing theory among historians, the Chinese used a combination of human labour, animals, and simple machines such as pulleys and levers to transport materials. Workers hauled bricks and stones up steep slopes using ropes and wooden carts. More recent archaeological findings suggest they might have used advanced techniques such as the assembly line to speed up construction.

In the 20th century, some engineers suggested that natural processes like erosion and earthquakes may have helped shape the current form of the Great Wall. However, most archaeologists remain sceptical, arguing that human intervention was the primary force behind its construction.

The third phase of major construction occurred during the Ming Dynasty, around the 15th century. During this time, the wall was reinforced with bricks and stones, and more sophisticated defensive structures were added. Some sections of the wall have been restored in modern times, revealing the original craftsmanship and techniques used.

But who were the builders of the Great Wall? Ancient Chinese records suggest that millions of labourers, including soldiers, peasants, and prisoners, contributed to its construction. This theory is supported by the numerous artefacts, such as tools and pottery, found at the site, which indicate the presence of a large workforce.

If the facts surrounding the builders and construction of the Great Wall remain somewhat unclear, the purpose of this massive structure is better understood. The primary function was to protect Chinese states and empires from invasions and raids by nomadic tribes from the north.

In the early 20th century, some historians suggested that the Great Wall also served as a means of border control, allowing the Chinese government to regulate immigration and trade. This theory has received considerable attention over the years, although critics argue that the wall was not entirely effective in these roles.

More recently, signs of ancient trade routes and artefacts found near the Great Wall have led a group of historians to speculate that it also played a role in promoting economic exchange and cultural integration.

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Living with Renewable Energy

Reliable and widespread renewable energy needs to be integrated into our daily lives, but does this mean traditional energy sources will become obsolete?

This has been the decade of renewable energy, with one astonishing development after another. Solar panels that can power entire cities and wind turbines that operate with unprecedented efficiency are just a few examples. These advancements represent the future, so what’s next? These innovations fall under what’s known as green energy, focusing on sustainable and environmentally friendly sources. Many experts believe this shift is only the beginning. By mid-century, we may have advanced renewable energy systems that can fully replace fossil fuels.

If so, there’s little reason to think it will stop there. Renewable energy technologies are not constrained by the same limitations as fossil fuels. Our current energy infrastructure relies heavily on finite resources that harm the environment. Renewable energy, on the other hand, harnesses natural processes like sunlight and wind, which are abundant and environmentally friendly. This transition could be as transformative as the shift from horse-drawn carriages to automobiles.

Once renewable energy systems become more efficient, their adoption could accelerate. What would this mean for us? Could we ensure a sustainable and equitable energy future? On the plus side, renewable energy is already proving to be useful and profitable in many sectors, and more efficient systems might be expected to be even more beneficial. But the more widespread renewable energy becomes, the more important it will be to manage this transition carefully. Historical transitions in energy use, like the shift from coal to oil, have had profound social and economic impacts.

So we need to create renewable energy systems that are ‘community-friendly’—that have goals aligned with societal values. One challenge is that different communities have different energy needs and resources. A one-size-fits-all approach won’t work. Renewable energy systems must be adaptable to local conditions and designed with community input to ensure they meet specific needs.

For sustainability’s sake, we want renewable energy technologies to be not only efficient but also equitable. We want them to benefit all sectors of society, not just the affluent. If renewable energy technologies exacerbate existing inequalities, we’ll face new social challenges.

For a successful transition, we need the renewable energy industry to aim for both technological excellence and social responsibility. Renewable energy systems will be advanced enough to identify the best ways to integrate into different communities and steer us toward a sustainable future.

However, there are two major hurdles to this vision. One is the initial implementation—the challenge of transitioning from traditional energy sources to renewables. This won’t be easy, given the current infrastructure and vested interests in fossil fuels. The other is achieving global cooperation. Climate change is a global issue, and effective solutions require collaboration across borders. How then, do we align the goals of different nations?

As for the destination, we might, by transitioning to renewable energy, be shaping a new era of environmental stewardship. This might mean relinquishing some of our reliance on traditional energy sources. While this change is necessary for sustainability, it will require a collective effort and a willingness to adapt.

The benefits of renewable energy aren’t always immediately obvious. For example, the integration of solar and wind energy into our power grids could lead to more stable energy prices and reduced pollution. However, the process will involve significant upfront costs and require political will and public support.

These issues might seem challenging, but they are already being addressed in some places. For instance, renewable energy is increasingly being used in local communities to provide reliable and affordable power. If adopted more widely, these technologies could revolutionise our energy systems and reduce our carbon footprint. However, ensuring that the transition is fair and equitable is crucial.

We have a new powerful technology to harness—a sustainable way of producing energy. For our own safety and the planet’s future, we need to guide this transition thoughtfully and act in the best interests of all communities. It is not yet clear whether this is possible, but if it is, it will require a cooperative spirit and a willingness to innovate.

Both technological innovation and social equity are essential for this transition. But sustainability requires that we think of them together: if we are to adopt renewable energy widely, we’ll need to ensure it benefits everyone. And where exactly would that leave traditional energy industries? All the more reason to think about the future now, and to be careful about how we proceed.

READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

An Ideal Education System

Maria Montessori’s ideal education system was centuries ahead of its time

The word ‘innovative’ is universally associated with the name of Maria Montessori. A true visionary in education, she embodied scientific spirit, pedagogical talent, and humanist sensibilities. Over a hundred years have passed since Montessori opened her first school in Rome, Italy. Yet far from fading into insignificance, her educational philosophy has carried down the centuries and still surprises today.

The early 20th century marked a time of significant social and educational change, following the industrial revolution which caused major shifts in population and labour. Today, the world is on the cusp of a technological revolution, which is predicted to cause widespread changes in how we live and work, if left unaddressed. Then, as now, radical solutions were called for to revolutionise the way people were educated and to safeguard the future of society.

Around 1907—after observing the poor educational conditions in Rome’s slums—Montessori turned her thoughts to educational reform. Following a typical progressive trend, she began to work on an ‘ideal education system’ project, which—due to its innovative nature—was initially met with resistance. Yet given that outdated educational models are a key cause of educational inequity today, it’s only natural to wonder how Montessori might have changed the shape of modern education.

Although the early 20th century is renowned as an era of incredible progress in science and technology, it is rarely noted that it also marked the birth of educational reform as a true academic discipline. The rigour and method behind the conscious conception of education had been largely missing in Western thought until prominent reformers like Montessori pushed forward large-scale educational projects. These works surely inspired Montessori’s decision to rethink the design of traditional education; with its rigid and overcrowded classrooms and its focus on rote memorization.

It is not easy to identify a coordinated vision of Montessori’s ideal education system because of her disordered way of working with notes and observations. But from the largest collection of Montessori’s papers ever assembled, a series of innovative thoughts can be reconstructed regarding the foundation of a new education system that focuses on child-centred learning, which emphasises the development of the whole child—physically, socially, emotionally, and cognitively.

Her plans for a modern and ‘rational’ education system were consistent with progressive ideals. But, in keeping with her personality, Montessori included several innovations in her educational design. Montessori wanted the education system to be built around the natural interests of children, with mixed-age classrooms and hands-on learning. This design can be seen in some of today’s educational practices but was unconventional at the time. Indeed, this idea of fostering independence and critical thinking wasn’t widely accepted until much later.

While in the classrooms, children could explore various subjects at their own pace, using specially designed materials, teachers acted as guides rather than traditional instructors. But the true originality of Montessori’s vision was its fusion of education and psychology. Montessori designed an extensive array of educational materials to support self-directed learning. She also thought that the learning environment ought to be prepared in such a way as to encourage exploration and discovery.

Although some of these features existed in earlier educational theories, before Montessori’s work there had never been a child-centred, holistic education system which was thoroughly technically conceived. Indeed, it wasn’t until the mid-20th century that some of her ideas were widely applied. For example, the concept of individualised learning plans and the emphasis on practical life skills are ideas that can be found in many modern educational practices.

Today, Montessori’s ideas are not simply valid, they actually suggest a way forward for educational reform. Many scholars think that a child-centred, holistic education system, integrated with modern technology and with a focus on lifelong learning, could help modern education become more effective and equitable. This is yet another reason why Montessori was aligned so closely with modern educational thinking and centuries ahead of her time.